METAPHYSICS

Chapter 4

Hesiod. 48

Parmenides.

Hesiod

One might suspect that Hesiod An 8th-century BCE Greek poet. Aristotle here treats his mythological cosmogony as an early form of philosophical inquiry. was the first to seek this—or whoever else placed love original: "amorem" or desire original: "desiderium" among existing things as a principle—just as Parmenides did. For the latter, in describing the generation of the universe, says: "First of all the gods, she devised Love." But Hesiod says: "First of all was Chaos, then wide-bosomed Earth... and Love, who shines out among all the immortals." This suggests that there must be some cause within existing things that moves and joins them together. How these thinkers should be ranked—that is, which of them came first—may be judged later. ¶ However, since the contraries of good things were also seen to exist in nature—not only order and beauty, but also disorder and ugliness, and more evil things than good, and more base things than beautiful—another thinker introduced Friendship original: "amicitiam" and Strife original: "contentionem" as the respective causes of each. For if one follows and accepts the meaning, rather than the stammering speech of Empedocles Empedocles (c. 490–430 BCE) proposed that the universe is composed of four elements joined by Love and separated by Strife., he will find that Friendship is the cause of good things, and Strife the cause of evil. ¶ Therefore, if one were to say that Empedocles in a certain way speaks—and was the first to speak—of Evil and Good as principles, he would perhaps be right, since the cause of all good things is Good itself, and of all evil things, Evil itself. ¶ These thinkers, then (as we have said), touched upon two of the causes we defined in our works on physics: matter and the source of motion. They did so, however, obscurely and not clearly, but just as untrained men do in a battle. For those men, circling about, often land excellent blows; yet they do not do so from skill, nor do these philosophers seem to know what they are saying. ¶ For they appear to use these causes almost not at all, except to a small degree. Even Anaxagoras Anaxagoras (c. 500–428 BCE) was the first to move philosophy to Athens; he famously proposed "Mind" (Nous) as the ordering force of the cosmos. uses Intellect original: "intelectu" like a mechanical device original: "machina." Aristotle is criticizing Anaxagoras for using "Mind" as a "deus ex machina"—a theatrical trick to solve a plot hole—only bringing it in when he cannot explain a natural cause. for the generation of the world; when he is in doubt as to why something is necessarily so, he drags it in. In all other matters, however, he assigns the cause of what happens to everything else rather than to Intellect. And...

49

Empedocles.

50

51

52

Anaxagoras.

One might suspect that Hesiod was the first to seek this very thing, and anyone else who positioned love or lust original: "cupiditatem" as a principle among these things that are, just as Parmenides did. For he, constructing the generation of the universe, says: "Of all the gods, she first brought forth Love." And Hesiod says: "First Chaos; after this was made the very wide Earth... and the god Desire original: "cupido" himself, who is the glory among the others." This is because it was necessary that there be a cause in these things which would move and gather them together. But as to which of these was the first to bring forward this cause, let it be judged later. ¶ Since, however, the contraries of good things were also seen to be present in nature—not only order or beauty, but also disorder and the shameful, and more evils than goods and more base things than honorable—another thinker introduced Concord original: "concordia" and Discord original: "discordia" so that each might be the cause of its respective effects. For if anyone follows Empedocles and takes what he says according to his mind and meaning, and not according to his stammering words, he will find that Concord is the cause of good things, and Discord the cause of evil. ¶ Therefore, if one said that Empedocles in a way says—and was the first to say—that Good and Evil are the principles of things, he might perhaps speak correctly. Since, for him, the cause of all good things is the Good itself; and of evil things, Evil. ¶ These men, therefore (as we have said), seem to have touched upon two of those causes which we distinguished in our contemplation of nature: I mean matter and that from which the principle of motion comes. They did so obscurely, however, and not plainly, but like the raw and untrained do in a fight. For they, when they are driven about, often perform excellently and land well-aimed blows; but they do not do so through knowledge, nor do these philosophers seem to know what they are saying. ¶ For they seem to use these causes for almost nothing, except very little. For even Anaxagoras uses Mind original: "mente" to construct the world just like poets use gods on a stage An explicit reference to the "deus ex machina" (the god from the machine) in Greek theater. when they are driven into a corner. And when he is in doubt for what cause something is necessary, then he drags Mind in; but in all other things, he assigns everything else as the cause of what happens rather than Mind. And...