METAPHYSICS

BOOK I

Empedocles Empedocles (c. 490–430 BCE) proposed that all matter is composed of four "roots" or elements: Earth, Air, Fire, and Water. uses causes more extensively than that man referring to Anaxagoras, mentioned on the previous page, yet still not sufficiently. Nor does he find, in these causes, that which everyone else agrees upon and concedes. For in many places, Harmony original: "concordia" actually disperses things, while Discord original: "discordia" gathers them together. For when the universe is distinguished into its elements through discord, then fire and each of the other elements are gathered into a single unity. But when they come together again into the "One" through friendship, then it is necessary that those very parts are again dispersed out of each element. Empedocles, therefore, was the first after the ancients to introduce this cause in a divided way: for he did not make the principle of motion a single thing, but made it diverse and contrary. Furthermore, he was the first to say there are four elements, which are spoken of as the species of matter. However, he does not use them as four, but as if they were only two: Fire by itself, and its opposites—Earth, Air, and Water—as a single nature. This very point can be gathered by anyone from his poems. He, therefore, as we have said, spoke in this way and identified this many principles.

Leucippus and his companion Democritus The founders of Atomism, who argued that the universe consists of tiny, indivisible particles (atoms) moving in a void. say that the elements are the Full original: "plenum" and the Void original: "vacuum", calling the former "being" original: "ens" (the full and solid) and the latter "non-being" original: "non ens" (the void and rare). For this reason, they say that "what is" exists no more than "what is not," because the void exists no less than the body. These, they say, are the causes of existing things in the sense of matter. And just as those who make a single underlying substance generate all other things through its modifications—setting Rare and Dense as the principles of these modifications—in the same way, these men say that the differences between atoms are the causes of all other things. They claim these differences are three: Shape, Order, and Position. For they say that "what is" differs only by "shape," "order," and "position." For A differs from N in shape; AN differs from NA in order; and Z differs from N The letter N, when turned on its side, becomes a symbol resembling Z (or 'Iota' in the original Greek), representing a change in orientation. in position. Regarding motion—where it comes from or in what manner it exists in things—these men, just like the others, have lazily omitted the question. Thus, as we have said, the investigation by our predecessors into the two causes The material and the moving cause. seems to have reached this point.

Empedocles.

Empedocles uses causes more than that other man, but still not sufficiently. Nor does he find in them what follows logically. For in many places in his work, Friendship original: "amicitia" separates things, while Strife original: "contentio" joins them. For when the universe is dissolved into its elements by strife, then fire coalesces into one, as does each of the other elements. But when they meet again into a unity through friendship, it is necessary for the particles of each to be separated again. Empedocles, therefore, beyond other older thinkers, was the first to introduce this cause by dividing it. He did not make one principle of motion, but diverse and contrary ones. And to these, he was the first to assert that the elements, which are called the species of matter, are four. However, he does not use them as four: but as if they were only two—Fire by itself, and the opposites—Earth, Air, and Water—as one nature. Anyone might grasp this point by contemplating his poems. He, therefore, as we said, asserted this and this many principles.

Leucippus Democritus.

Leucippus and his associate Democritus say that the elements are the Full and the Void, calling the one "being" and the other "non-being." And again: being is the full and solid, while non-being is the void and rare. Therefore, they say that being exists no more than non-being, because the void is no less real than the body. They say these are the causes of existing things as matter. And just as those who make one thing the underlying substance generate everything else by its passions In this context, "passions" refers to the ways a substance is acted upon or modified, such as being compressed or expanded., establishing the Rare and the Dense as the principles of those passions: in a similar way, these men also say the differences are the causes of other things. They say these differences are three: Shape, Order, and Position. For they say being differs only by rysmos, diathige, and trope Aristotle uses the original Greek terms from Democritus here. Rysmos means shape, diathige means arrangement/order, and trope means turning/position.. Of these, rysmos is shape; diathige is order; and trope is position. A differs from N in shape; AN from NA in order; and Z from N in position. Regarding motion—where it comes from or how it is in existing things—these men likewise, through negligence, have omitted it. Thus far, as we were saying, it seems the two causes have been investigated by those who came before.