BESSARIO | ARGYROPYLUS

...they defined things only superficially. For they thought that the substance of a thing was that to which the stated definition first applied. It is as if someone thought "double" and "the number two" were the same thing, because the quality of being double belongs first to the number two. But perhaps the essence of two is not the same as the essence of double; otherwise, the One itself will surely be many original: "plura pfecto erit"; Aristotle is arguing that if a definition applies to many things, and you equate the definition with the substance of the One, then the One becomes many, which is a logical contradiction for these thinkers.. Thus, from the predecessors and others, so many points may be gathered.

CHAPTER VI.

After the philosophies mentioned, the work of Plato followed. In most respects, he followed these earlier thinkers, but he also held certain views distinct from the philosophy of the Italians The "Italians" refers to the Pythagorean school active in Southern Italy.. From his youth, Plato was first a friend of Cratylus and was well-versed in the opinions and teachings of Heraclitus Heraclitus was a pre-Socratic philosopher famous for the doctrine that "everything flows" (panta rhei)., who held that all sensible things are in a constant state of flux and that there can be no certain knowledge of them. Plato maintained these views even later in life. However, while Socrates concerned himself with moral matters original: "circa mores" and set aside the study of nature as a whole, he was the first to seek universal truths and apply the mind to definitions. Plato admired him for this, but believed that this process of definition applied to other things and not to sensible objects. For it is impossible for a common definition to belong to any sensible thing, since they are always changing. Therefore, he called such non-sensible things "Ideas" or "Forms," and said that sensible things existed apart from these, but were all named after them. He claimed that most things which share a name exist by "participation" in the Forms. Yet, he began to change the name of this relationship, calling it "participation." For the Pythagoreans say that things exist by "imitation" of numbers, but Plato called it "participation," changing only the word. However, as to what this "participation" or "imitation" of the Forms actually is, both he and the Pythagoreans left that for others to investigate. Furthermore, he said that besides sensible things and Forms, there exist "mathematical things" as intermediaries original: "res mathematicas medias"; Aristotle describes Plato's belief that numbers and shapes sit between the physical world and the abstract world of Forms.. These differ from sensible things by being eternal and immobile, but differ from the Forms in that many mathematical objects can be similar, while each Form is unique. Since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he thought their elements were the elements of all existing things. Thus, he said the "Great and the Small" original: "magnum igitur & paruum" were the principles as matter, while "the One" was the principle as substance. From these...

...they defined things perfunctorily. For they thought that the substance of a thing was whatever the definition was first said to be. It is just as if someone thought "double" and "duality" were the same thing, because "double" first belongs to duality. But perhaps the being of double and the being of duality are not the same; if they were not, the One itself would be many. This is what happened to them. From the earlier thinkers and others, these are the things we may accept.

CHAPTER VI.

64 Plato.

A decorative drop-cap letter 'P' depicts a figure standing in a landscape with a building in the background.
After the philosophies already mentioned, the teaching of Plato arrived. In most matters, it followed those earlier thinkers, but it also possessed certain unique features beyond the philosophy of the Italians. Having associated with Cratylus from a young age and being accustomed to the opinions of Heraclitus—namely, that all sensible things are always flowing away and that no knowledge of them exists—Plato continued to think this way even later on. But while Socrates treated moral questions and nothing of the whole of nature, he nevertheless sought the universal in these matters and was the first to apply his mind to definitions. Praising him for this, Plato thought that this defining happened to other things and not to any of the sensibles. For it is impossible for there to be a common definition of any sensible thing, which are always changing. And so, he called such kinds of beings "Ideas." He said that sensible things were distinct from these, and were all named according to them. For by "participation," many things with the same name are synonymous with the species. However, he changed only the name of "participation." For the Pythagoreans say that beings exist by "imitation" of numbers, but Plato, by changing the name, called it "participation." Yet, as to what this "participation" or "imitation" of species actually is, they collectively neglected to investigate. Also, besides sensible things and species, he says there are "mathematical things" as intermediaries. These differ from sensible things because they are eternal and immobile, and from the species because the mathematicals are many similar things, while each species is one alone. And since species are the causes of other things, he thought their elements were the elements of all beings. He posited the "Great and the Small" as the principles of matter, and "the One" as the substance. From these...