Collected Works of Xenophon

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...toward? advantageous? ends.? We? consider? advantageous? whatsoever? in? the? present? and? in? the? future? benefits? all? such? things? in? life,? and? the? contraries? to? these? we? consider? harmful.? Therefore,? the? advantageous? and? the? harmful? exist? most? frequently? in? public? speeches.? A? useful? speaker? holds? this? power,? so? as? to? increase? the? good? and? destroy? the? evil.? Since? there? is? something? that? occurs? contrary? to? justice,? for? this? reason? the? orator? must? be? engaged? in? these? matters.? Often,? even? in? the? assemblies,? contrary? to? justice,? they? do? not? consider? the? benefactors? worthy? of? condemnation.? It? remains? to? examine? the? possibility? within? their? words,? which? we? choose.? Also? the? endurance? against? all? enemies.? Apart? from? these,? act? according? to? justice? and? according? to? what? is? possible,? existing? for? us? to? construct? the? proofs.? For? just? as? examples? create? an? opinion? from? similarities,? so? too? do? enthymemes? original: "ἐνθυμήματα"; technical term for rhetorical syllogisms arise? from? opposites? and? consequences.? Every? action? is? either? a? command? or? a? prohibition.? In? general,? it? is? due? to? the? cause? of? acting? or? not? acting.? Those? entering? into? war? aim? for? victory,? while? those? using? laws? aim? for? the? best? outcome,? and? in? this? way? they? also? consider? the? safety? of? the? commonwealth.?

And all such things. In addition to these, one must also know the customs of the cities. For customs possess the force of laws. It is also necessary to know the constitutions politeiai political systems/forms of government toward which we direct our speeches. For constitutions differ from one another. There is demokratia democracy, oligarchia oligarchy, aristokratia aristocracy, and monarchia monarchy. Each of these has its own specific end. For democracy, the end is freedom. For oligarchy, it is wealth. For aristocracy, it is education and legal tradition. For monarchy, it is the protection of the ruler. Thus, it is necessary to choose one's intentions and legal arguments according to the end of each constitution, for the proofs are derived from these. Furthermore, it is necessary to know the deeds that have been performed, not only those within the city but also those from abroad. For similar actions, for the most part, produce the same results. Therefore, one who intends to speak in public must be experienced in such matters. Furthermore, one must know the strengths of the cities: how great is their naval power, how great is their infantry, and what revenues are available to them, so that we may know against whom it is necessary to make war and with whom it is necessary to maintain peace. It happens often that because of ignorance of the facts, great harm occurs. The deliberative speech demegorikos logos political/public speech is concerned with these matters, while the forensic speech dikanikos judicial/courtroom speech is concerned with accusations and defenses. Therefore, justice is found in the laws, and the law is a common mandate written by the city.